Analyzing the short story Revenge by Isabel Allende Free Essay Example, 1750 words

Numerous of the features that Dulce Rosa has resembled those of Allende or women’s characteristics on the whole; Rosa is a female of numerous sentiments and emotions. She is a beautiful and brilliant girl, but not as beautiful as other girls in their place. This makes Rosa seem more connected to the female readers for she is not portrayed as remarkably or extraordinarily pretty, which numerous leading female characters are. Rosa exhibits courage and resolve when her father was slaughtered. She is troubled of the fact that her father has been killed. This emotion is understandable. When Rosa is sexually violated, her resolve to take revenge against Tadeo Cespedes is reasonable after he has slaughtered her father and sexually violated her. Yet, Rosa was quite patient for Tadeo to come back to her. She was confident that he would come back and haunt her down. Possibly one characteristic Allende desired to endow Rosa with was patience, for Rosa believed that her opportunity to finally carry out his revenge would arrive (Cox 82). But when Tadeo does come back, Rosa has suddenly changed her plans of revenge. We will write a custom essay sample on Analyzing the short story Revenge by Isabel Allende or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now Maybe this is revealing women’s weaknesses, and even their innocence. Rosa fell in love with a criminal. Women usually have a softer aspect, which is possibly the reason why Rosa yielded to her emotions, although she wanted desired vengeance. Apparently, Rosa also had a feeling of vulnerability and hopelessness, which later on resulted in her suicide. Her adoration for her father’s murderer ruined her self-esteem, and she thought she would not be able to fulfill her promise to him. In spite of the fact that killing oneself is a terrible, sinful act, Rosa thought her suicide would be the perfect recourse. She could not continue living with the reality that she fell in love with a criminal. Allende was successful in depicting a woman who has powerful goals and resolve. Numerous women desire to gain control over men because they dislike being controlled by men. Rosa had that control over Tadeo, until she developed a deep affection for him. Allende even depicts women as fragile and defenseless sometimes, which is quite real (McNeese 77). A lot of women become innocent in the face of love, but perhaps not to the level to which Allende brings it because it would be difficult to love a person who slaughtered one’s loved ones and sexually violated him/her. Nevertheless, it reveals how women bear and deal with numerous sentiments and emotions. Dulce Rosa’s death may be associated with a tumultuous mix of emotions, such as sadness, isolation, anxiety, and grief for her father.

Alcoholics Anonymous A Anonymous - 865 Words

Attending an Alcoholic Anonymous Meeting Alcoholics Anonymous was founded in the basis that alcoholism cannot be healed medically, but spiritually. Alcoholics Anonymous was founded in 1939 by Bill Wilson, and Dr. Robert Smith (B’s, n.d.). The main goal of Alcoholics Anonymous is recovery from alcoholism, and to fully abstain from consuming alcohol. Several non-stated goals are staying out of jail, fixing a financial situation, or becoming happier (Trizio, 2006). After attending in a meeting for Alcoholics Anonymous, I could tell that there was a much deeper meaning for the word ‘sobriety’ for people who suffer from alcoholism. Alcoholics Anonymous has no formal membership, monthly dues, or yearly subscriptions. In order to become a member of Alcoholics Anonymous, a person must have a strong desire to quit drinking (Quality Information, n.d). Members of Alcoholics Anonymous don’t discriminate against those who drink, as some people attend meetings simply because they didn’t want to be drinking at that moment. Alcoholics Anonymous members are a close knitted community, as they all face the same struggles together, and tend to be the best sources of referral. Other sources of referral’s come from Law Enforcement, Judges, Physiatrists, and church leaders. It takes an alcoholic to know an alcoholic, so the backbone of Alcoholics Anonymous revolves around alcoholics helping other alcoholics. However, an alcoholic cannot diagnose another alcoholic with alcoholism. TheShow MoreRelatedAlcoholics Anonymous : A Anonymous1442 Words   |  6 PagesAlcoholics Anonymous Alcoholics Anonymous is a group composed of men and women who want to stop drinking and help each other stay on the path towards sobriety. They are not affiliated with any other organization, denomination, or institution and the only requirement for membership is the desire to stop drinking (Fisher Harrison, 2013). They meet at least once a week, if not more to support one another and to share their experiences, struggles, and successes. I attended an AA meeting held atRead MoreA Study On Alcoholics Anonymous Essay1459 Words   |  6 PagesAlcoholics Anonymous has held an almost sacred spot in our society as the way for addicts to get sober through spiritual means, with many people having anecdotal stories and experiences corroborating this belief. To full examine the ethicality of AA, an in depth look at AA is required. A study of its history, a description of the program, the success rates and commonly held harmful beliefs of AA, alternatives to AA, and finally an analysis using Rawl’s Theory of Justice are all required in orderRead MoreThe Theory Of Alcoholics Anonymous1622 Words   |  7 PagesMade a Beginning Group (MAB) of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) was observed in the efforts to link course readings and class lectures to real life group work. MAB was observed on October 14, 2015, at 6:00 pm. with fourteen people in attendance. The open support group meeting was located at the First Unitarian Church of Orlando on East Robinson Street and was led by one facilitator. MAB and the facilitator showed deviations from the normal group practices discussed in the class of Group Dynamics and ProcessRead MoreAlcoholics Anonymous ( A.a )1623 Words   |  7 PagesFounded in 1935, Alcoholics Anonymous (A.A.) is a 12-step spiritual program for those who have a desire to stop drinking. It is open to all those who seek help all over the world. Thousands of alcoholics have become victorious because of the spiritual foundation it was built on. In 1939 the first book, Alcoholics Anonymous, was published. It held all of the struggles and hope filled stories of some of the first alcoholics that joined the group. This book, later called â€Å"The Big Book†, would lay downRead More Alcoholics Anonymous Essay1487 Words   |  6 PagesAlcoholics Anonymous When I saw the Alcoholics Anonymous assignment on our syllabus earlier this semester I thought, Oh my god, I have to go to some stupid AA meeting. In the weeks prior to attending the meeting, I was very nervous about attending it because I did not know what to expect. Some of the questions going through my mind were: Was everyone expected to talk at the meeting? and Was I going to be criticized as the outsider wanting to know what AA was all about? Those wereRead More Alcoholics Anonymous Essay1355 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"early A.A.† refers to the early fellowships and meetings held in Akron, Ohio. These meetings took place between 1935 and 1939 when Alcoholics Anonymous was an integral part of â€Å"A First Century Christian Fellowship† (Pitman 56). A.A. was the outcome of a meeting between Bill W., a New York stockbroker, and Dr. Bob S., an Akron surgeon. Both had been hopeless alcoholics (Fingarette 14). nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Before this time, Bill and Dr. Bob had each been in contact with the Oxford Group,Read MoreAlcoholics Anonymous And The Philosophies Essay1883 Words   |  8 Pages Alcoholics Anonymous and The Philosophies in Between: Conflicting Philosophies Between the Original Twelve-Step Alcohol’s Anonymous Program and The New Counseling Profession Brandon R. McIver University of Oregon Abstract This paper concerns the notoriously well known successful treatment program, Alcoholics Anonymous twelve-step program, and contrasts it to what would be referred to as a revised version of the original program. Alcoholics Anonymous has beenRead MoreAn Alcoholics Anonymous ( Aa ) Meeting Essay1753 Words   |  8 PagesI went to an Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) meeting on November 26, 2016 at noon in Simi Valley, CA. It was in the back entrance of a strip mall in a long, thin room with tables down the middle and chairs around the table and around the walls in the room. It is only located four minutes from my house, but I have never noticed it before. As I walked in there was a little kitchen with coffee and a pecan pie and there were goodies on the table. I them walked into the main room. A woman led the group forRead MoreGroup Experience : Alcoholics Anonymous1441 Words   |  6 PagesSupport Group Experience Alcoholics Anonymous Alcoholics Anonymous is a group composed of men and women who want to stop drinking and help each other stay on the path towards sobriety. They are not affiliated with any other organization, denomination, or institution and the only requirement for membership is the desire to stop drinking (Fisher Harrison, 2013). They meet at least once a week, if not more to support one another and to share their experiences, struggles, and successes. I attendedRead MoreA Glimpse Inside Alcoholics Anonymous1662 Words   |  7 PagesA Glimpse Inside Alcoholics Anonymous â€Å"Animated in the spirit of Jesus Christ, we value all individuals’ unique talents, respect their dignity, and strive to foster their commitment to excellence in our work. Our community’s strength depends on the unity and diversity of our people, on the free exchange of ideas, and on learning, living, and working harmoniously (Saint Leo University Core Values, Respect). Introduction. I decided I wanted to visit an Alcoholics Anonymous group meeting in my local

The Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne - 1573 Words

People are constantly changing. They are constantly using their past mistakes to make for themselves a better future. Life is a constant process of living and learning. This is what author, Nathaniel Hawthorne, has the character Hester Prynne do in his novel The Scarlet Letter. Hester Prynne, the main protagonist, causes great havoc in her society for committing adultery. The novel tells the story of Hester and how she is shut out from her world for what she has done, and exemplifies the affect of her sin on those around her and those closest to her. These people including Reverend Dimmesdale who dissipates from his own guilt, Roger Chillingworth, Hester’s husband who was assumed to be dead, who becomes a very vengeful and spiteful man, and also her own daughter Pearl who is an outcast of the children because she is a child of sin. Hester’s development throughout the novel is truly remarkable as are the effects other characters have on her. She grows from being ashamed and defiant to at peace with herself and her sin while remaining the same protective mother of her daughter, Pearl. She becomes confident and free, not letting the Puritan society control or define her. At first glance, Hester is portrayed more so as the victim rather than the heroine. Because she committed adultery against her husband, we see the people in her society brand her with a red â€Å"A†. She’s forced to stand in shame of a thousand Puritan citizens, enduring their stares and whispers. Hester therefore,Show MoreRelatedThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1242 Words   |  5 PagesLYS PAUL Modern Literature Ms. Gordon The Scarlet Letter The scarlet letter is book written by Nathaniel Hawthorne who is known as one the most studied writers because of his use of allegory and symbolism. He was born on July 4, 1804 in the family of Nathaniel, his father, and Elizabeth Clark Hathorne his mother. Nathaniel added â€Å"W† to his name to distance himself from the side of the family. His father Nathaniel, was a sea captain, and died in 1808 with a yellow fever while at sea. That was aRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne960 Words   |  4 Pages3H 13 August 2014 The novel, The Scarlet Letter, was written by the author Nathaniel Hawthorne and was published in 1850 (1). It is a story about the Puritan settlers of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, set around 1650 (2). The story is written in the third person with the narrator being the author. The common thread that runs through this novel is Hawthorne’s apparent understanding of the beliefs and culture of the Puritans in America at that time. But Hawthorne is writing about events in a societyRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter, By Nathaniel Hawthorne919 Words   |  4 Pagessymbolism in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Scarlet Letter†. Symbolism is when an object is used in place of a different object. Nathaniel Hawthorne is one of the most symbolic writers in all of American history. In â€Å"The Scarlet Letter†, the letter â€Å"A† is used to symbolize a variety of different concepts. The three major symbolistic ideas that the letter â€Å"A† represents in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Scarlet Letter† are; shame, guilt, and ability. In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Scarlet Letter†, the firstRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1397 Words   |  6 PagesFebruary 2016 The Scarlet Letter was written by Nathaniel Hawthorne in 1850 which is based on the time frame of the Puritans, a religious group who arrived in Massachusetts in the 1630’s. The Puritans were in a religious period that was known for the strict social norms in which lead to the intolerance of different lifestyles. Nathaniel Hawthorne uses the puritan’s strict lifestyles to relate to the universal issues among us. The time frame of the puritans resulted in Hawthorne eventually thinkingRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne999 Words   |  4 Pages Nathaniel Hawthorne is the author of the prodigious book entitled The Scarlet Letter. In The Scarlet Letter, Hester Prynne commits adultery with Reverend Arthur Dimmesdale. Her husband, Roger Chillingworth, soon finds out about the incident after it becomes clear that she is pregnant. The whole town finds out and Hester is tried and punished. Meanwhile, Roger Chillingworth goes out then on a mission to get revenge by becoming a doctor and misprescribing Dimmesdale. He does this to torture DimmesdaleRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter, by Nathaniel Hawthorne1037 Words   |  5 Pagesthat human nature knows right from wrong, but is naturally evil and that no man is entirely â€Å"good†. Nathaniel Hawthorne, author of the classic novel The Scarlet Letter, believes that every man is innately good and Hawthorne shows that everyone has a natural good side by Hester’s complex character, Chillingworth’s actions and Dimmesdale’s selfless personality. At the beginning of the Scarlet Letter Hester Prynne is labeled as the â€Å"bad guy†. The townspeople demand the other adulterer’s name, butRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1517 Words   |  7 PagesNathaniel Hawthorne composes Pearl as a powerful character even though she is not the main one. Her actions not only represent what she is as a person, but what other characters are and what their actions are. Hawthorne makes Pearl the character that helps readers understand what the other characters are. She fits perfectly into every scene she is mentioned in because of the way her identity and personality is. Pearl grows throughout the book, which in the end, help the readers better understandRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter, By Nathaniel Hawthorne1488 Words   |  6 Pages In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s novel The Scarlet Letter, the main character, Hester Prynne, is a true contemporary of the modern era, being cast into 17th century Puritan Boston, Massachusetts. The Scarlet Letter is a revolutionary novel by Nathaniel Hawthorne examining the ugliness, complexity, and strength of the human spirit and character that shares new ideas about independence and the struggles women faced in 17th century America. Throughout the novel, Hester’s refusal to remove the scarlet letterRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1319 Words   |  6 PagesPrynne and Arthur Dimmesdale are subject to this very notion in Nathaniel Hawthorne s The Scarlet Letter. Hester simply accepted that what she had done was wrong, whereas Dimmesdale, being a man of high regard, did not want to accept the reality of what he did. Similar to Hester and Dimmesdale, Roger Chillingworth allows his emotions to influence his life; however, his influence came as the result of hi s anger. Throughout the book, Hawthorne documents how Dimmesdale and Hester s different ways of dealingRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1714 Words   |  7 PagesSome two hundred years following the course of events in the infamous and rigid Puritan Massachusetts Colony in the 1600s, Nathaniel Hawthorne, descendant of a Puritan magistrate, in the 19th century, published The Scarlet Letter. Wherein such work, Hawthorne offered a social critique against 17th Massachusetts through the use of complex and dynamic characters and literary Romanticism to shed light on said society’s inherent contradiction to natural order and natural law. In his conclusive statements

Bandura Rotter, Molly Ringwald Character from Breakfast...

Bandura Rotter, Molly Ringwald Character from Breakfast Club The reinforcement for Clair’s behavior was mainly dependent on the approval she received from her popular peer group. She has a notion that she needs to be â€Å"popular† or approved in order to be seen as better in her school. Reinforcement would also be abiding by her parents so she is able to shop with her families wealth. After she had bought something materialistic, it makes her feel good. There was a battle of the reinforcement values in this movie. One was, as stated above, to seek approval of her older known peers known to be stuck-up, condescending, and popular. The other is reinforcement of a more positive virtue. This virtue is as stated, thinking independently and†¦show more content†¦Clair, by the end of the movie, did show some deviation in her expectancies by being more empathetic to others and independent with her thinking. This showed that she had an external locus of control but was starting slightly to pitch off to the internal side of the E- I scale. But none the less, my estimation would say that she has a way to introspect before she gets out of the predominately external territory. The interactionists view from Clair’s standpoint is her need for approval and popularity around peer groups and social situations. Expectancy of Clair is shown to be low at the beginning of the film, but brought up after the group discussion. Her expectancies become more internal via introspection of herself brought on by group advocation. The advocation may have been harsh and blunt at times, but it helped in the functioning of Clair finding other ways to think about herself, old peers, new peers, and parents. I believe this shaped her character in a positive way to think for herself instead of a group-think automaton looking for approval from other condescending teenage girls. Firstly, Clair was using her expectancy outcomes. Her competency became more prevalent, she seemed more concerned about advancing her newly independent self and peers (The Breakfast Club). This could mean Clair would be more open to a self regulatory plan. (Bandura) A personnel agency became more prevalent within Clair as time went

Workplace Ethical Dilemma Paper Free Essays

Workplace Ethical Dilemma Paper BSHS / 322 Marcia Winter Introduction We’ve all heard the golden rules: In today’s society it is hard to find a good paying job. When one finds a good paying job, that person needs to do whatever he or she can do to keep that job. Ethics can be a problem in a workplace if someone is asked to do something that they do not feel is right. We will write a custom essay sample on Workplace Ethical Dilemma Paper or any similar topic only for you Order Now â€Å"Ethics are about making choices that may not always feel good or seem like they benefit you but are the â€Å"right† choices to make† (Curry, 2011; para 2). In the following, I will discuss a workplace ethical dilemma that I have witnessed in my current employment. I will discuss the essential points of the dilemma and how this dilemma intersects with my personal values. Personal Ethics I have very simple personal ethics and values that I live by. â€Å"Don’t hurt, don’t steal, don’t lie, or one of the most famous: â€Å"Do unto others as you would have done to you† (Curry, 2011; para 2). I have others but these are the main ones I live by. My parents taught me early in life that if I want to do well in this world and have others respect me than I better remember these ethics and values. Workplace Ethical Dilemma I have been employed for the same medical facility for almost 2 years. I started at the hospital and have worked my way into the clinics. This is a major accomplishment because normally my job does not move their employees around. They like to keep everyone in the same place. When I transferred to my current position I was put in the position to â€Å"spy† on the current workers in the office. I kept the same boss and she knew that there were some issues at my new location. She wanted me to get the scoop on everyone and then report back to her. Now, I love my boss and my job, but she was asking me to do something that I was not ok with. I am not the type of person to gossip about people behind their backs. I like to do my job and go home. I do not want to talk about others because I have been on the receiving end and have been the person that others have talked about. It does not feel good. Points of Dilemma When I was asked to spy on my coworkers, I did not know what to say. I kept thinking that my boss was joking with me and was waiting for me to respond in the correct way. I felt like she was looking to see what I would do. I did not talk about it for a couple of days after she talked with me about it. I thought long and hard as to what I was going to do. I did not want to lose my job over this but I really did not want to tell on my coworkers. I did not even know them yet. I kept thinking that I could not work with people I did not trust. I knew that if someone was to spy on me, that I would never be able to trust them. Read also â€Å"Glengarry Glen Ross†Ã‚   by David Mamet I did not want to break that trust. When my boss approached me a second time, I knew what my answer was going to be. I told my boss that I did not feel comfortable spying on my coworkers. I was waiting for her to tell me that I did have a choice†¦. it is either your job or spy on your coworkers. She surprised me when she told me that she understood my position and respected my decision. I stood their flabbergasted because I did not know what to say. Personal Values Personally, this decision to not do what my boss told me tore at me. I have always been taught to listen to authority. My boss would be my authority. However, I was also told to treat others the same way I would like to be treated. I cannot stand it when people talk about me behind my back. I am a person who confronts problems head on. If someone has a problem with the way I do things than I would want that person to confront me and talk with me about it. I would not like them to go running to the boss and â€Å"tell† on me. I did not want my boss to be mad at me but I also do not want me coworkers mad at me. There would only be a couple of reason why I would tell on my coworkers. One would be if I witnessed one of them doing something very wrong to a patient or to another coworker. An example of this would be if one of my coworkers lied to a patient or to another coworker. This would be against my code of ethics. The other reason would be if one of my coworkers would be stealing from the company. Stealing would consist of stealing money, supplies or cheating on one’s paycheck. There are some people who are very dishonest regarding their time card. â€Å"Employee fraud is on the rise, soaring from $400 billion in lost revenue for U. S. usinesses in 1996 to over $600 billion in 2003. And while many organizations have implemented background checking as a requirement for employment, the majority of employees who steal–68. 6 percent, according to Association of Certified Fraud Examiners –have no prior criminal record (Wolf; Para 4). Conclusion In conclusion, having good work ethics and values are extremely important. People look at those qual ities just as much as they would look at qualifications. Employers want employees who are going to not only show up for work but also does quality work as well. The personal workplace dilemma that I shared is not the only personal workplace dilemma I have had. I am sure in my future I will have more. If I continue to live by my personal ethics and values than I should have no problems with my future dilemmas. References Curry, Myron; 2011; Ethics on the Workplace; retrieved October 23, 2011 from http://EzineArticles. com/12475 Wolf, Ira; 2004; Cheating, Lies and Other Workplace Ethics; retrieved October 23 2011 from http://www. super-solutions. com/EmployeeFraudandWorkplaceEthics. asp#ixzz1bqShnBN4 How to cite Workplace Ethical Dilemma Paper, Essay examples

Literary Forms in Related Literature free essay sample

The diversity and richness of Philippine literature evolved side by side with the countrys history. This can best be appreciated in the context of the countrys pre-colonial cultural traditions and the socio-political histories of its colonial and contemporary traditions. The average Filipinos unfamiliarity with his indigenous literature was largely due to what has been impressed upon him: that his country was discovered and, hence, Philippine history started only in 1521. So successful were the efforts of colonialists to blot out the memory of the countrys largely oral past that present-day Filipino writers, artists and journalists are trying to correct this inequity by recognizing the countrys wealth of ethnic traditions and disseminating them in schools and in the mass media. The rousings of nationalistic pride in the 1960s and 1970s also helped bring about this change of attitude among a new breed of Filipinos concerned about the Filipino identity. We will write a custom essay sample on Literary Forms in Related Literature or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Pre-Colonial Times Owing to the works of our own archaeologists, ethnologists and anthropologists, we are able to know more and better judge information about our pre-colonial times set against a bulk of material about early Filipinos as recorded by Spanish, Chinese, Arabic and other chroniclers of the past. Pre-colonial inhabitants of our islands showcase a rich past through their folk speeches, folk songs, folk narratives and indigenous rituals and mimetic dances that affirm our ties with our Southeast Asian neighbors. The most seminal of these folk speeches is the riddle which is tigmo in Cebuano, bugtong in Tagalog, paktakon in Ilongo and patototdon in Bicol. Central to the riddle is the talinghaga or metaphor because it reveals subtle resemblances between two unlike objects and ones power of observation and wit are put to the test. While some riddles are ingenious, others verge on the obscene or are sex-related: Gaddang: Gongonan nu usin y amam If you pull your daddys penis Maggirawa pay sila y inam. Your mommys vagina, too, (Campana) screams. (Bell) The proverbs or aphorisms express norms or codes of behavior, community beliefs or they instill values by offering nuggets of wisdom in short, rhyming verse. The extended form, tanaga, a mono-riming heptasyllabic quatrain expressing insights and lessons on life is more emotionally charged than the terse proverb and thus has affinities with the folk lyric. Some examples are the basahanon or extended didactic sayings from Bukidnon and the daraida and daragilon from Panay. The folk song, a form of folk lyric which expresses the hopes and aspirations, the peoples lifestyles as well as their loves. These are often repetitive and sonorous, didactic and naive as in the childrens songs or Ida-ida(Maguindanao), tulang pambata (Tagalog) or cansiones para abbing (Ibanag). A few examples are the lullabyes or Ili-ili (Ilongo); love songs like the panawagon and balitao (Ilongo); harana or serenade (Cebuano); the bayok (Maranao); the seven-syllable per line poem, ambahan of the Mangyans that are about human relationships, social entertainment and also serve as a tool for teaching the young; work songs that depict the livelihood of the people often sung to go with the movement of workers such as the kalusan (Ivatan), soliranin (Tagalog rowing song) or the mambayu, a Kalinga rice-pounding song; the verbal jousts/games like the duplo popular during wakes. Other folk songs are the drinking songs sung during carousals like the tagay (Cebuano and Waray); dirges and lamentations extolling the deeds of the dead like the kanogon (Cebuano) or the Annako (Bontoc). A type of narrative song or kissa among the Tausug of Mindanao, the parang sabil, uses for its subject matter the exploits of historical and legendary heroes. It tells of a Muslim hero who seeks death at the hands of non-Muslims. The folk narratives, i. e. epics and folk tales are varied, exotic and magical. They explain how the world was created, how certain animals possess certain characteristics, why some places have waterfalls, volcanoes, mountains, flora or fauna and, in the case of legends, an explanation of the origins of things. Fables are about animals and these teach moral lessons. Our countrys epics are considered ethno-epics because unlike, say, Germanys Niebelunginlied, our epics are not national for they are histories of varied groups that consider themselves nations. The epics come in variousnames: Guman (Subanon); Darangen (Maranao); Hudhud (Ifugao); and Ulahingan (Manobo). These epics revolve around supernatural events or heroic deeds and they embody or validate the beliefs and customs and ideals of a community. These are sung or chanted to the accompaniment of indigenous musical instruments and dancing performed during harvests, weddings or funerals by chanters. The chanters who were taught by their ancestors are considered treasures and/or repositories of wisdom in th eir communities. Examples of these epics are the Lam-ang (Ilocano); Hinilawod (Sulod); Kudaman (Palawan); Darangen (Maranao); Ulahingan (Livunganen-Arumanen Manobo); Mangovayt Buhong na Langit (The Maiden of the Buhong Sky from TuwaangManobo); Ag Tobig neg Keboklagan (Subanon); and Tudbulol (Tboli). The Spanish Colonial Tradition While it is true that Spain subjugated the Philippines for more mundane reasons, this former European power contributed much in the shaping and recording of our literature. Religion and institutions that represented European civilization enriched the languages in the lowlands, introduced theater which we would come to know as komedya, the sinakulo, the sarswela, the playlets and the drama. Spain also brought to the country, though at a much later time, liberal ideas and an internationalism that influenced our own Filipino intellectuals and writers for them to understand the meanings of liberty and freedom. Literature in this period may be classified as religious prose and poetry and secular prose and poetry. Religious lyrics written by ladino poets or those versed in both Spanish and Tagalog were included in early catechism and were used to teach Filipinos the Spanish language. Fernando Bagonbantas Salamat nang walang hanga/gracias de sin sempiternas (Unending thanks) is a fine example that is found in the Memorial de la vida cristiana en lengua tagala (Guidelines for the Christian life in the Tagalog language) published in 1605. Another form of religious lyrics are the meditative verses like the dalit appended to novenas and catechisms. It has no fixed meter nor rime scheme although a number are written in octosyllabic quatrains and have a solemn tone and spiritual subject matter. But among the religious poetry of the day, it is the pasyon in octosyllabic quintillas that became entrenched in the Filipinos commemoration of Christs agony and resurrection at Calvary. Gaspar Aquino de Belens Ang Mahal na Passion ni Jesu Christong Panginoon natin na tola (Holy Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ in Verse) put out in 1704 is the countrys earliest known pasyon. Other known pasyons chanted during the Lenten season are in Ilocano, Pangasinan, Ibanag, Cebuano, Bicol, Ilongo and Waray. Aside from religious poetry, there were various kinds of prose narratives written to prescribe proper decorum. Like the pasyon, these prose narratives were also used for proselitization. Some forms are: dialogo(dialogue), Manual de Urbanidad (conduct book); ejemplo (exemplum) and tratado (tratado). The most well-known are Modesto de Castros Pagsusulatan ng Dalawang Binibini na si Urbana at si Feliza (Correspondence between the Two Maidens Urbana and Feliza) in 1864 and Joaquin Tuasons Ang Bagong Robinson (The New Robinson) in 1879, an adaptation of Daniel Defoes novel. Secular works appeared alongside historical and economic changes, the emergence of an opulent class and the middle class who could avail of a European education. This Filipino elite could now read printed works that used to be the exclusive domain of the missionaries. The most notable of the secular lyrics followed the conventions of a romantic tradition: the languishing but loyal lover, the elusive, often heartless beloved, the rival. The leading poets were Jose Corazon de Jesus (Huseng Sisiw) and Francisco Balagtas. Some secular poets who wrote in this same tradition were Leona Florentino, Jacinto Kawili, Isabelo de los Reyes and Rafael Gandioco. Another popular secular poetry is the metrical romance, the awit and korido in Tagalog. The awit is set in dodecasyllabic quatrains while the korido is in octosyllabic quatrains. These are colorful tales of chivalry from European sources made for singing and chanting such as Gonzalo de Cordoba (Gonzalo of Cordoba) and Ibong Adarna (Adarna Bird). There are numerous metrical romances in Tagalog, Bicol, Ilongo, Pampango, Ilocano and in Pangasinan. The awit as a popular poetic genre reached new heights in Balagtas Florante at Laura (ca. 1838-1861), the most famous of the countrys metrical romances. Again, the winds of change began to blow in 19th century Philippines. Filipino intellectuals educated in Europe called ilustrados began to write about the downside of colonization. This, coupled with the simmering calls for reforms by the masses gathered a formidable force of writers like Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, Mariano Ponce, Emilio Jacinto and Andres Bonifacio. This led to the formation of the Propaganda Movement where prose works such as the political essays and Rizals two political novels, Noli Me Tangere and the El filibusterismo helped usher in the Philippine revolution resulting in the downfall of the Spanish regime, and, at the same time planted the seeds of a national consciousness among Filipinos. But if Rizals novels are political, the novel Ninay (1885) by Pedro Paterno is largely cultural and is considered the first Filipino novel. Although Paternos Ninay gave impetus to other novelists like Jesus Balmori and Antonio M. Abad to continue writing in Spanish, this did not flourish. Other Filipino writers published the essay and short fiction in Spanish in La Vanguardia, El Debate, Renacimiento Filipino, and Nueva Era. The more notable essayists and fictionists were Claro M. Recto, Teodoro M. Kalaw, Epifanio de los Reyes, Vicente Sotto, Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, Rafael Palma, Enrique Laygo (Caretas or Masks, 1925) and Balmori who mastered the prosa romantica or romantic prose. But the introduction of English as medium of instruction in the Philippines hastened the demise of Spanish so that by the 1930s, English writing had overtaken Spanish writing. During the languages death throes, however, writing in the romantic tradition, from the awit and korido, would continue in the novels of Magdalena Jalandoni. But patriotic writing continued under the new colonialists. These appeared in the vernacular poems and modern adaptations of works during the Spanish period and which further maintained the Spanish tradition. The American Colonial Period A new set of colonizers brought about new changes in Philippine literature. New literary forms such as free verse [in poetry], the modern short story and the critical essay were introduced. American influence was deeply entrenched with the firm establishment of English as the medium of instruction in all schools and with literary modernism that highlighted the writers individuality and cultivated consciousness of craft, sometimes at the expense of social consciousness. The poet, and later, National Artist for Literature, Jose Garcia Villa used free verse and espoused the dictum, Art for arts sake to the chagrin of other writers more concerned with the utilitarian aspect of literature. Another maverick in poetry who used free verse and talked about illicit love in her poetry was Angela Manalang Gloria, a woman poet described as ahead of her time. Despite the threat of censorship by the new dispensation, more writers turned up seditious works and popular writing in the native languages bloomed through the weekly outlets like Liwayway and Bisaya. The Balagtas tradition persisted until the poet Alejandro G. Abadilla advocated modernism in poetry. Abadilla later influenced young poets who wrote modern verses in the 1960s such as Virgilio S. Almario, Pedro I. Ricarte and Rolando S. Tinio. While the early Filipino poets grappled with the verities of the new language, Filipinos seemed to have taken easily to the modern short story as published in the Philippines Free Press, the College Folio andPhilippines Herald. Paz Marquez Benitezs Dead Stars published in 1925 was the first successful short story in English written by a Filipino. Later on, Arturo B. Rotor and Manuel E. Arguilla showed exceptional skills with the short story. Alongside this development, writers in the vernaculars continued to write in the provinces. Others like Lope K. Santos, Valeriano Hernandez Pena and Patricio Mariano were writing minimal narratives similar to the early Tagalog short fiction called dali or pasingaw (sketch). The romantic tradition was fused with American pop culture or European influences in the adaptations of Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan by F. P. Boquecosa who also penned Ang Palad ni Pepe after Charles Dickens David Copperfield even as the realist tradition was kept alive in the novels by Lope K. Santos and Faustino Aguilar, among others. It should be noted that if there was a dearth of the Filipino novel in English, the novel in the vernaculars continued to be written and serialized in weekly magazines like Liwayway, Bisaya, Hiligaynon and Bannawag. The essay in English became a potent medium from the 1920s to the present. Some leading essayists were journalists like Carlos P. Romulo, Jorge Bocobo, Pura Santillan Castrence, etc. who wrote formal to humorous to informal essays for the delectation by Filipinos. Among those who wrote criticism developed during the American period were Ignacio Manlapaz, Leopoldo Yabes and I. V. Mallari. But it was Salvador P. Lopezs criticism that grabbed attention when he won the Commonwealth Literay Award for the essay in 1940 with his Literature and Society. This essay posited that art must have substance and that Villas adherence to Art for Arts Sake is decadent. The last throes of American colonialism saw the flourishing of Philippine literature in English at the same time, with the introduction of the New Critical aesthetics, made writers pay close attention to craft and indirectly engendered a disparaging attitude towards vernacular writings a tension that would recur in the contemporary period. The Contemporary Period The flowering of Philippine literature in the various languages continue especially with the appearance of new publications after the Martial Law years and the resurgence of committed literature in the 1960s and the 1970s. Filipino writers continue to write poetry, short stories, novellas, novels and essays whether these are socially committed, gender/ethnic related or are personal in intention or not. Of course the Filipino writer has become more conscious of his art with the proliferation of writers workshops here and abroad and the bulk of literature available to him via the mass media including the internet. The various literary awards such as the Don Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature, the Philippines Free Press, Philippine Graphic, Home Life and Panorama literary awards encourage him to compete with his peers and hope that his creative efforts will be rewarded in the long run. With the new requirement by the Commission on Higher Education of teaching of Philippine Literature in all tertiary schools in the country emphasizing the teaching of the vernacular literature or literatures of the regions, the audience for Filipino writers is virtually assured. And, perhaps, a national literature finding its niche among the literatures of the world will not be far behind.